The Road to Kalashnikov: Tracing the History of the Khyber Pass and the AK-47

Introduction

The Khyber Pass is a narrow, strategically crucial mountain pass that links present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. For centuries, it has been an integral part of the ancient Silk Road and a critical trade route between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

Located in the Spin Ghar mountain range along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, the Khyber Pass runs through the Safed Koh mountains and connects the Kabul River Valley in Afghanistan to Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. At its narrowest point, the Pass is only 3 meters wide between the imposing mountain cliffs on either side.

The Khyber Pass has a rich history, serving as a strategic military chokepoint and trade corridor for various empires and rulers over the millennia. Its geography as a narrow gateway through a mountainous region has made it a coveted possession, especially for armies seeking to control the lands beyond it.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Khyber Pass was a key point of conflict during the Great Game - a strategic rivalry between the British and Russian empires for control of Central Asia. It remains a vital route for modern Afghanistan and Pakistan while also being a haven for smugglers and militants operating along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border area.

Early History

The Khyber Pass has played an integral role in trade and military campaigns for thousands of years. Located in the Hindu Kush mountains near the border between Afghanistan and modern-day Pakistan, the passage has connected Central Asia and South Asia since ancient times.

Some of the key events in the early history of the Khyber Pass include:

• Use as a trade route along the ancient Silk Road. Merchants traveled through the pass carrying silk, spices, gems, and other goods between China, India, and Europe. The route through the Khyber brought economic prosperity to the region.

• Conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. Alexander and his army passed through the Khyber Pass on military campaigns as they extended the boundaries of his empire to the Indus River.

• Invasions from Central Asia into South Asia via the Khyber Pass, including Muslim conquerors and the Mongol Empire. Control of the pass was seen as strategically vital.

• Role in the "Great Game" between British and Russian empires in the 19th century. The British sought to control the Khyber Pass to protect British India from potential Russian invasion. This led to three Anglo-Afghan wars.

• Use as a major route for trade caravans and travelers. Traders carried goods to exchange markets via the Pass. It was an important highway linking India with Central Asia.

The Khyber Pass has been an integral part of the Silk Road trade route and numerous military campaigns for over 2,000 years. Its strategic location has made control over the Pass a key priority for empires seeking to connect or conquer the South Asian and Central Asian regions.

The Great Game

In the 19th century, the Khyber Pass region became the focal point of the so-called "Great Game", which was the geopolitical rivalry between the British Empire and Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia.

The British, who had colonized India, were deeply concerned about Russian expansion towards the Indian subcontinent. The Khyber Pass was seen as the gateway for a potential Russian invasion into British India. As such, the British made significant efforts to extend their control over the Khyber Pass region and counter Russian influence.

By the 1830s, the Pass was under the nominal control of the Emir of Kabul. However, the British sent exploratory missions and forged relations with the local Pashtun tribes to secure British interests. When Dost Mohammad Khan, the Emir of Afghanistan, began favouring the Russians, the British invaded Afghanistan and replaced him with Shah Shuja, starting the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842).

Though the British were dealt a humiliating defeat, the rivalry with Russia continued over the later decades. Under the leadership of viceroys Lord Lytton and Lord Curzon, Britain engaged in vigorous gamesmanship and conquests to strengthen the defense of their Indian Empire against the Russians. This included annexations of territory near the Khyber Pass.

The antipathy between Britain and Russia peaked with the Panjdeh Incident of 1885, when Russian forces seized Afghan territory near the Pass. War seemed imminent, but cooler heads prevailed and tensions were defused diplomatically. By 1895, the two empires agreed to use the Durand Line as the border between their respective spheres of influence. This boundary endures to the present day between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

So the "Great Game" made the Khyber Pass region a major arena for power politics between two rival empires vying for dominance in Central Asia. Britain's resolve to defend India led it to devote substantial strategic resources to controlling and securing the Pass throughout the 19th century.

20th Century and Independence

The early 20th century saw major developments in the Khyber Pass region and surrounding areas in northwest India, as the subcontinent moved towards independence from British rule. The Partition of India in 1947 led to the creation of the sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The Khyber Pass suddenly became an extremely sensitive border region between these new neighbors.

As the British prepared to leave India, Muslim leaders led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah pushed for the creation of a separate Muslim homeland. This demand was opposed by Indian leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi, who wanted a unified India. In June 1947 the British agreed to Partition along religious lines, with two dominions of India and Pakistan to be formed at midnight on August 14/15.

The border line that would divide India and Pakistan was hurriedly drawn up by a British commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Known as the Radcliffe Line, it was announced on August 17, just two days after independence. The provinces of Punjab and Bengal were divided based on Muslim or non-Muslim majorities in each district.

This rushed Partition led to widespread violence and one of the largest mass migrations in history, as Hindus and Sikhs fled to India while Muslims moved to Pakistan. Over 15 million people were displaced and estimates of death toll range from 200,000 to over 1 million.

The contentious Radcliffe Line split the Pashtun tribes along the Northwest Frontier right down the middle. The Khyber Pass became the main route linking Pakistan to Afghanistan, while splitting the Pashtun heartland. This artificial border through Pashtun lands remains a sore point to this day. It provides easy passage between Pakistan and Afghanistan but divides the Pashtun nation.

Pakistan initially had a close relationship with the US, joining the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) as an ally against Soviet influence during the Cold War. However, Pakistan also built strong ties with China as the Sino-India split widened. The loss of East Pakistan in the 1971 Bangladesh War was a major setback.

Pakistan's ties with Afghanistan have seen many ups and downs, as different regimes came to power in Kabul. But the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 pushed the two countries closer together, as Pakistan strongly backed the Afghan mujahideen resistance. Weapons flowed freely across the border areas as part of the anti-Soviet jihad.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

The Khyber Pass played a pivotal role during the Soviet-Afghan War from 1979-1989. Its strategic location connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan made it a key supply route for arms and other aid to flow from Pakistan into Afghanistan to support the mujahideen fighters battling the Soviet forces.

Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) worked closely with the CIA to funnel weapons such as anti-aircraft missiles and other arms to the mujahideen through the Khyber Pass. The pass became a hotbed of clandestine activity, with ISI agents and arms smugglers transporting vast quantities of small arms and other weapons along the rugged paths of the Hindu Kush mountains into Afghanistan.

The mujahideen relied heavily on the covert supply of arms flowing from the Khyber Pass to sustain their insurgency against the Soviets. Chinese and American manufactured weapons such as AK-47s, mortars, rockets and Stinger missiles made their way along the Khyber into Afghanistan in convoys of trucks, donkeys and camels. The mujahideen became adept at ambushing Soviet convoys traveling along the pass, making it a treacherous journey for the invaders.

The Khyber Pass allowed Pakistan to firmly establish control over the flow of supplies to the various mujahideen groups, giving them leverage in the conflict. The pass served as a lifeline for the Afghan resistance, providing them the weapons they needed to ultimately force the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 after nearly a decade of occupation.

Rise of the Taliban

In the early 1990s, following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the Taliban emerged as a powerful force in the country. The Taliban seized control of much of Afghanistan between 1994-1996, including areas around the Khyber Pass.

Under Taliban rule, the Khyber Pass became a major supply and trafficking route for the militant group. The Taliban derived funds by taxing the smuggling of goods through the pass, everything from consumer electronics to drugs and weapons. They also used the Khyber Pass to bring in reinforcements and supplies for their forces.

The Taliban instituted strict control over the Khyber region and the pass. They monitored passenger travel and smuggling activity closely. The Taliban also extorted money from traders and truck drivers transiting the pass.

Local Pashtun tribes in the Khyber area were forced to cooperate with the Taliban to survive. The Taliban conscripted young Pashtun men into their ranks as they expanded their influence.

The rise and harsh rule of the Taliban throughout the 1990s transformed the storied Khyber Pass. The fabled Grand Trunk Road which ran through the pass fell into disrepair due to fighting and neglect. For the first time in centuries, the Khyber Pass was no longer a bustling trade route or major economic artery. It became synonymous with conflict and instability under the Taliban's grip.

US Invasion of Afghanistan

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda, the United States invaded Afghanistan seeking to capture Osama bin Laden and dismantle the Al-Qaeda terrorist network based in the country. The US conducted air strikes and deployed ground troops starting in October 2001 against the Taliban government, who had provided safe haven for Al-Qaeda. The initial campaign succeeded quickly, removing the Taliban from power by December.

However, the Taliban regrouped as an insurgency force and began attacking US and NATO troops in the country. Roadside bombs and ambushes on supply convoys became common, inflicting casualties on coalition forces. The difficult terrain and porous border with Pakistan allowed the Taliban to move freely between the countries.

The US shifted to counterinsurgency operations, attempting to secure population centers from Taliban control. Violence escalated through the 2000s, with US troop levels rising to over 100,000. Though some Taliban strongholds were wrested away, the insurgency could not be fully defeated. After nearly 20 years of war, the US finally withdrew all troops from Afghanistan in 2021 following a peace agreement with the Taliban.

Pakistani Military Operations

The rugged and remote terrain of the Khyber Pass and surrounding tribal areas has long been a refuge for various insurgent groups. Beginning in the early 2000s, the Pakistani military began efforts to exert control over these areas and eliminate insurgent threats.

Major operations included:

• In 2004, the Pakistan army launched Operation al-Mizan in South Waziristan against Al-Qaeda fighters and their local supporters. This was the first significant military action in the tribal areas.

• In 2009, Operation Rah-e-Rast was launched in Swat valley against the Pakistani Taliban. This cleared the area of militants and regained government control.

• In 2014, a major offensive called Operation Zarb-e-Azb was initiated in North Waziristan. This targeted foreign and local militants in tribal areas near the Afghan border.

• Operation Radd-ul-Fasaad began across the country in 2017, aiming to eliminate residual terrorist threats.

• In 2020, Operation Khyber-4 was conducted in the former Khyber Agency to apprehend terrorists and destroy their hideouts in the remote mountains.

The frequency and scale of Pakistan army operations in the tribal belt expanded dramatically after 2001 under pressure from the United States. Thousands of militants have been killed over the years, disrupting insurgent strongholds and limiting cross-border attacks. However, insurgent groups maintain a scattered presence in remote areas. Continued military pressure in the border region aims to deny terrorists freedom of movement.

Small Arms Production

The Khyber Pass region has a long history of producing small arms, most notably the AK-47 rifle. During the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s, the CIA provided funding and equipment to Afghan mujahideen fighters resisting the Soviet invasion. Many of these weapons, including AK-47s, RPGs, and other small arms, were smuggled into Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.

To keep up with demand, small arms production increased dramatically in the weapons workshops of the Khyber Pass region. Local Pashtun tribesmen, who had crafted flintlock rifles for centuries, began producing copied and reverse-engineered models of modern automatic rifles like the AK-47. These locally-produced copies were referred to as "Khyber Pass Copies."

While often lower in build quality than original Soviet AK-47s, the Khyber Pass copies gained a reputation for reliability in the field. The ready availability of spare parts in weapons markets enabled fighters to keep the rifles operational despite heavy use. Soon, various factories and workshops specialized in producing different components of the AK-47 pattern rifles.

In addition to serving mujahideen forces, the locally produced AK-47 copies were also used by tribal militias and criminals in the area. They became a symbol of Pushtun identity and self-sufficiency in an often unstable region. Even as Pakistan cracked down on unlicensed production in the early 2000s, cottage production continued to supply small batches of rifles and other weapons to militant groups and arms dealers.

The story of the Khyber Pass copies reflects the resourcefulness and determination of local Pashtun gunsmiths. Their production of AK-47s and other modern weapons, often under primitive conditions, exemplified the fierce independence of tribal groups in the Afghan-Pakistan border region. The proliferation of these small arms had lasting consequences, fueling decades of conflict long after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan.

Current Status and Future

In recent years, the security situation in the Khyber Pass region has improved somewhat but remains fragile. Pakistani military operations have succeeded in pushing out many militant groups that once operated freely in the area. However, the threat of terrorism and instability persists.

Strategically, the Khyber Pass remains hugely important for both Pakistan and Afghanistan. It represents a vital trade and travel corridor between the two countries. For ages, the Khyber Pass has been a gateway for commerce and conquest in the region. Keeping it open and secure is a priority for both governments.

Looking ahead, the future of the Khyber Pass depends heavily on relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Increased cooperation on border security and counterterrorism efforts could help stabilize the situation. However, mistrust between the two countries persists and has hindered joint operations in the past.

Much also depends on the progress of peace talks with the Afghan Taliban. A negotiated settlement could potentially calm the security situation and allow for greater development along the Khyber route. However, the talks have stalled repeatedly and a breakthrough remains elusive.

The planned China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, which will connect China's western regions with the Arabian Sea via infrastructure running through the Khyber Pass, represents a potential economic boon for the region. However, the corridor also faces major security challenges in ensuring stability for long-term investment and trade.

Overall, the Khyber Pass remains a strategically vital but unstable region. Recent improvements are encouraging but sustaining peace will require delicate diplomacy and difficult security tradeoffs by all sides. The future of the historic Khyber route is far from assured.